Antarctica

Speculation over the existence of a "southern land" was not confirmed until the early 1820s when British and American commercial operators and British and Russian national expeditions began exploring the Antarctic Peninsula region and other areas south of the Antarctic Circle. Not until 1840 was it established that Antarctica was indeed a continent and not just a group of islands. Several exploration "firsts" were achieved in the early 20th century.

Following World War II, there was an upsurge in scientific research on the continent. A number of countries have set up year-round research stations on Antarctica. Seven have made territorial claims, but not all countries recognize these claims. In order to form a legal framework for the activities of nations on the continent, an Antarctic Treaty was negotiated that neither denies nor gives recognition to existing territorial claims; signed in 1959, it entered into force in 1961.

• Antarctic Treaty Summary - the Antarctic Treaty, signed on 1 December 1959 and entered into force on 23 June 1961, establishes the legal framework for the management of Antarctica;
• the 27th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting was held in Cape Town, South Africa in May-June 2004;
• at these periodic meetings, decisions are made by consensus (not by vote) of all consultative member nations;
• at the end of 2003, there were 45 treaty member nations: 28 consultative and 17 non-consultative;
• consultative (decision-making) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory (some claims overlap) and 21 non-claimant nations;
• the US and Russia have reserved the right to make claims;
• the US does not recognize the claims of others;
• Antarctica is administered through meetings of the consultative member nations;
• decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in accordance with their own national laws;
• the year in parentheses indicates when an acceding nation was accepted as a consultative member, while no date indicates the country was an original 1959 treaty signatory;
• claimant nations are - Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the UK. Nonclaimant consultative nations are - Belgium, Brazil (1983), Bulgaria (1998) China (1985), Ecuador (1990), Finland (1989), Germany (1981), India (1983), Italy (1987), Japan, South Korea (1989), Netherlands (1990), Peru (1989), Poland (1977), Russia, South Africa, Spain (1988), Sweden (1988), Ukraine (1992), Uruguay (1985), and the US;
• non-consultative members, with year of accession in parentheses, are - Austria (1987), Canada (1988), Colombia (1989), Cuba (1984), Czech Republic (1993), Denmark (1965), Estonia (2001), Greece (1987), Guatemala (1991), Hungary (1984), North Korea (1987), Papua New Guinea (1981), Romania (1971), Slovakia (1993), Switzerland (1990), Turkey (1995), and Venezuela (1999);
• Article 1 - area to be used for peaceful purposes only;
• military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited, but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose;
• Article 2 - freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue;
• Article 3 - free exchange of information and personnel, cooperation with the UN and other international agencies;
• Article 4 - does not recognize, dispute, or establish territorial claims and no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force;
• Article 5 - prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes;
• Article 6 - includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south and reserves high seas rights;
• Article 7 - treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment;
• advance notice of all expeditions and of the introduction of military personnel must be given;
• Article 8 - allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states;
• Article 9 - frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations;
• Article 10 - treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty;
• Article 11 - disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the ICJ;
• Articles 12, 13, 14 - deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations;
• other agreements - some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments include - Agreed Measures for Fauna and Flora (1964) which were later incorporated into the Environmental Protocol;
• Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972);
• Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980);
• a mineral resources agreement was signed in 1988 but remains unratified;
• the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed 4 October 1991 and entered into force 14 January 1998;
• this agreement provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes: 1) environmental impact assessment, 2) conservation of Antarctic fauna and flora, 3) waste disposal and waste management, 4) prevention of marine pollution, and 5) area protection and management;
• it prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific research;
• a permanent Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in 2004 in Buenos Aires, Argentina

Fishing off the coast and tourism, both based abroad, account for the limited economic activity. Antarctic fisheries in 2000-01 (1 July-30 June) reported landing 112,934 metric tons. Unregulated fishing, particularly of Patagonian toothfish, is a serious problem. The Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources determines the recommended catch limits for marine species.

A total of 13,571 tourists visited in the 2002-03 antarctic summer, up from the 11,588 visitors the previous year. Nearly all of them were passengers on commercial (nongovernmental) ships and several yachts that make trips during the summer. Most tourist trips last approximately two weeks.