Oman
Sultanate of OmanSaltanat Uman
absolute monarchyIndependence 1650 (expulsion of the Portuguese)
Oman as the 2022 edition of the CIA World Factbook published it: 158 fields, one of 36 editions from 1990 to 2025.
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Introduction
1 fieldBackground
The inhabitants of the area of Oman have long prospered from Indian Ocean trade. In the late 18th century, the nascent sultanate in Muscat signed the first in a series of friendship treaties with Britain. Over time, Oman's dependence on British political and military advisors increased, although the sultanate never became a British colony. In 1970, QABOOS bin Said Al-Said overthrew his father, and ruled as sultan for the next five decades.
His extensive modernization program opened the country to the outside world. He prioritized strategic ties with the UK and US, and his moderate, independent foreign policy allowed Oman to maintain good relations with its neighbors and to avoid external entanglements.
Inspired by the popular uprisings that swept the Middle East and North Africa beginning in January 2011, some Omanis staged demonstrations, calling for more jobs and economic benefits and an end to corruption. In response to those protester demands, QABOOS in 2011 pledged to implement economic and political reforms, such as granting Oman’s bicameral legislative body more power and authorizing direct elections for its lower house, which took place in November 2011.
Additionally, the sultan increased unemployment benefits, and, in August 2012, issued a royal directive mandating the speedy implementation of a national job creation plan for thousands of public and private sector Omani jobs. As part of the government's efforts to decentralize authority and allow greater citizen participation in local governance, Oman successfully conducted its first municipal council elections in December 2012.
Announced by the sultan in 2011, the municipal councils have the power to advise the Royal Court on the needs of local districts across Oman's 11 governorates. Sultan QABOOS, Oman's longest reigning monarch, died on 11 January 2020. His cousin, HAYTHAM bin Tariq bin Taimur Al-Said, former Minister of Heritage and Culture, was sworn in as Oman's new sultan the same day.
Geography
Middle East, bordering the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman, and Persian Gulf, between Yemen and the UAE
18 fieldsLand useshare of 309,500 sq km
Location
Middle East, bordering the Arabian Sea, Gulf of Oman, and Persian Gulf, between Yemen and the UAE
Climate
- dry desert;
- hot, humid along coast;
- hot, dry interior;
- strong southwest summer monsoon (May to September) in far south
Population distribution
- the vast majority of the population is located in and around the Al Hagar Mountains in the north of the country;
- another smaller cluster is found around the city of Salalah in the far south;
- most of the country remains sparsely poplulated
Natural hazards
summer winds often raise large sandstorms and dust storms in interior; periodic droughts
Geography - note
- consists of Oman proper and two northern exclaves, Musandam and Al Madhah;
- the former is a peninsula that occupies a strategic location adjacent to the Strait of Hormuz, a vital transit point for world crude oil
People and Society
35 fieldsAge structuremale left, female right · (2020 est.)
Per 1,000 population(2022 est.)
Male · female
Religions(2020 est.)
Languages
Arabic (official), English, Baluchi, Swahili, Urdu, Indian dialects; major-language sample(s): كتاب حقائق العالم، المصدر الذي لا يمكن الاستغناء عنه للمعلومات الأساسية (Arabic); The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information.
Population distribution
- the vast majority of the population is located in and around the Al Hagar Mountains in the north of the country;
- another smaller cluster is found around the city of Salalah in the far south;
- most of the country remains sparsely poplulated
Sex ratio
- at birth:
- 1.05 male(s)/female
- 0-14 years:
- 1.05 male(s)/female
- 15-24 years:
- 1.1 male(s)/female
- 25-54 years:
- 1.32 male(s)/female
- 55-64 years:
- 1.12 male(s)/female
- 65 years and over:
- 0.79 male(s)/female
- total population:
- 1.17 male(s)/female (2022 est.)
Alcohol consumption per capita
- total:
- 0.47 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
- beer:
- 0.17 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
- wine:
- 0.02 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
- spirits:
- 0.29 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
- other alcohols:
- 0 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
Environment
12 fieldsLand use(2018 est.)
Environment - current issues
- limited natural freshwater resources;
- high levels of soil and water salinity in the coastal plains;
- beach pollution from oil spills;
- industrial effluents seeping into the water tables and aquifers;
- desertificaiton due to high winds driving desert sand into arable lands
Environment - international agreements
- party to:
- Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping-London Convention, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands, Whaling
- signed, but not ratified:
- none of the selected agreements
Air pollutants
- particulate matter emissions:
- 38.25 micrograms per cubic meter (2016 est.)
- carbon dioxide emissions:
- 63.46 megatons (2016 est.)
- methane emissions:
- 5.6 megatons (2020 est.)
Climate
- dry desert;
- hot, humid along coast;
- hot, dry interior;
- strong southwest summer monsoon (May to September) in far south
Urbanization
- urban population:
- 88.4% of total population (2023)
- rate of urbanization:
- 2.32% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)
Total water withdrawal
- municipal:
- 130 million cubic meters (2017 est.)
- industrial:
- 135 million cubic meters (2017 est.)
- agricultural:
- 1.607 billion cubic meters (2017 est.)
Government
Absolute monarchy; Sultan and Prime Minister HAYTHAM bin Tariq bin Taimur Al-Said (since 11 January 2020); Sultan and Prime Minister HAYTHAM bin Tariq bin Taimur Al-Said (since 11 January 2020)
22 fieldsCountry name
- conventional long form:
- Sultanate of Oman
- conventional short form:
- Oman
- local long form:
- Saltanat Uman
- local short form:
- Uman
- former:
- Sultanate of Muscat and Oman
- etymology:
- the origin of the name is uncertain, but it apparently dates back at least 2,000 years since an "Omana" is mentioned by Pliny the Elder (1st century A.D.) and an "Omanon" by Ptolemy (2nd century A.D.)
Capital
- name:
- Muscat
- geographic coordinates:
- 23 37 N, 58 35 E
- time difference:
- UTC+4 (9 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)
- etymology:
- the name, whose meaning is uncertain, traces back almost two millennia;
- two 2nd century A.D. scholars, the geographer PTOLEMY and the historian ARRIAN, both mention an Arabian Sea coastal town of Moscha, which most likely referred to Muscat
Administrative divisions
- 11 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafaza);
- Ad Dakhiliyah, Al Buraymi, Al Wusta, Az Zahirah, Janub al Batinah (Al Batinah South), Janub ash Sharqiyah (Ash Sharqiyah South), Masqat (Muscat), Musandam, Shamal al Batinah (Al Batinah North), Shamal ash Sharqiyah (Ash Sharqiyah North), Zufar (Dhofar)
National holiday
National Day, 18 November; note - celebrates Oman's independence from Portugal in 1650 and the birthday of Sultan QABOOS bin Said al Said, who reigned from 1970 to 2020
Constitution
- history:
- promulgated by royal decree 6 November 1996 (the Basic Law of the Sultanate of Oman serves as the constitution); amended by royal decree in 2011
- amendments:
- promulgated by the sultan or proposed by the Council of Oman and drafted by a technical committee as stipulated by royal decree and then promulgated through royal decree; amended by royal decree 2011, 2021
International law organization participation
has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; non-party state to the ICCt
Citizenship
- citizenship by birth:
- no
- citizenship by descent only:
- the father must be a citizen of Oman
- dual citizenship recognized:
- no
- residency requirement for naturalization:
- unknown
Suffrage
- 21 years of age;
- universal;
- note - members of the military and security forces by law cannot vote
Executive branch
- chief of state:
- Sultan and Prime Minister HAYTHAM bin Tariq bin Taimur Al-Said (since 11 January 2020); note - the monarch is both chief of state and head of government
- head of government:
- Sultan and Prime Minister HAYTHAM bin Tariq bin Taimur Al-Said (since 11 January 2020)
- cabinet:
- Cabinet appointed by the monarch
Legislative branch
- description:
- bicameral Council of Oman or Majlis Oman consists of:; Council of State or Majlis al-Dawla (85 seats including the chairman; members appointed by the sultan from among former government officials and prominent educators, businessmen, and citizens);
- Consultative Council or Majlis al-Shura (86 seats; members directly elected in single- and 2-seat constituencies by simple majority popular vote to serve renewable 4-year terms);
- note - since political reforms in 2011, legislation from the Consultative Council is submitted to the Council of State for review by the Royal Court
- elections:
- Council of State - last appointments on 11 July 2019 (next to be held in November 2023); Consultative Assembly - last held on 27 October 2019 (next to be held in October 2023)
- election results:
- Council of State - composition - men 70, women 15, percent of women 17.6%;
- Consultative Council percent of vote by party - NA;
- seats by party - NA (organized political parties in Oman are legally banned);
- composition men 84, women 2, percent of women 2.3%;
- note - total Council of Oman percent of women 9.9%
Judicial branch
- highest court(s):
- Supreme Court (consists of 5 judges)
- judge selection and term of office:
- judges nominated by the 9-member Supreme Judicial Council (chaired by the monarch) and appointed by the monarch; judges appointed for life
- subordinate courts:
- Courts of Appeal;
- Administrative Court;
- Courts of First Instance;
- sharia courts;
- magistrates' courts;
- military courts
Political parties and leaders
none; note - organized political parties are legally banned in Oman, and loyalties tend to form around tribal affiliations
International organization participation
ABEDA, AFESD, AMF, CAEU, FAO, G-77, GCC, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICC (NGOs), IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IHO, ILO, IMF, IMO, IMSO, Interpol, IOC, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, LAS, MIGA, NAM, OIC, OPCW, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Diplomatic representation in the US
- chief of mission:
- Ambassador Moosa Hamdan Moosa AL TAI (since 17 February 2021)
- chancery:
- 2535 Belmont Road, NW, Washington, DC 20008
- telephone:
- [1] (202) 387-1980
- FAX:
- [1] (202) 745-4933
- email address and website:
- [email protected]; https://www.culturaloffice.info/aboutomaniembassy
Diplomatic representation from the US
- chief of mission:
- Ambassador Leslie M. TSOU (since 19 January 2020)
- embassy:
- P.C. 115, Madinat Al Sultan Qaboos, Muscat
- mailing address:
- 6220 Muscat Place, Washington DC 20521
- telephone:
- [968] 2464-3400
- FAX:
- [968] 2464-3740
- email address and website:
- [email protected]; https://om.usembassy.gov/
Flag description
- three horizontal bands of white (top), red, and green of equal width with a broad, vertical, red band on the hoist side;
- the national emblem (a khanjar dagger in its sheath superimposed on two crossed swords in scabbards) in white is centered near the top of the vertical band;
- white represents peace and prosperity, red recalls battles against foreign invaders, and green symbolizes the Jebel al Akhdar (Green Mountains) and fertility
National symbol(s)
khanjar dagger superimposed on two crossed swords; national colors: red, white, green
National anthem
- name:
- "Nashid as-Salaam as-Sultani" (The Sultan's Anthem)
- lyrics/music:
- Rashid bin Uzayyiz al KHUSAIDI/James Frederick MILLS, arranged by Bernard EBBINGHAUS
note: adopted 1932; new lyrics written after QABOOS bin Said al Said gained power in 1970; first performed by the band of a British ship as a salute to the Sultan during a 1932 visit to Muscat;
the bandmaster of the HMS Hawkins was asked to write a salutation to the Sultan on the occasion of his ship visit
National heritage
- total World Heritage Sites:
- 5 (all cultural)
- selected World Heritage Site locales:
- Bahla Fort;
- Archaeological Sites of Bat;
- Land of Frankincense;
- Aflaj Irrigation Systems of Oman;
- Ancient Qalhat
Economy
Oman is heavily dependent on oil and gas resources, which can generate between and 68% and 85% of government revenue, depending on fluctuations in commodity prices.
33 fieldsGDP - composition, by sector of origin(2017 est.)
Trading partnersexports left, imports right
By end use% of GDP · (2017 est.)
Budget(2017 est.)
Economic overview
Oman is heavily dependent on oil and gas resources, which can generate between and 68% and 85% of government revenue, depending on fluctuations in commodity prices. In 2016, low global oil prices drove Oman’s budget deficit to $13.8 billion, or approximately 20% of GDP, but the budget deficit is estimated to have reduced to 12% of GDP in 2017 as Oman reduced government subsidies.
As of January 2018, Oman has sufficient foreign assets to support its currency’s fixed exchange rates. It is issuing debt to cover its deficit.
Oman is using enhanced oil recovery techniques to boost production, but it has simultaneously pursued a development plan that focuses on diversification, industrialization, and privatization, with the objective of reducing the oil sector's contribution to GDP. The key components of the government's diversification strategy are tourism, shipping and logistics, mining, manufacturing, and aquaculture.
Muscat also has notably focused on creating more Omani jobs to employ the rising number of nationals entering the workforce. However, high social welfare benefits - that had increased in the wake of the 2011 Arab Spring - have made it impossible for the government to balance its budget in light of current oil prices.
In response, Omani officials imposed austerity measures on its gasoline and diesel subsidies in 2016. These spending cuts have had only a moderate effect on the government’s budget, which is projected to again face a deficit of $7.8 billion in 2018.
Credit ratings
- Fitch rating:
- BB- (2020)
- Moody's rating:
- Ba3 (2020)
Standard & Poors rating: B+ (2020)
note: The year refers to the year in which the current credit rating was first obtained.
Agricultural products
dates, tomatoes, vegetables, goat milk, milk, cucumbers, green chillies/peppers, watermelons, sorghum, melons
Industries
crude oil production and refining, natural and liquefied natural gas production; construction, cement, copper, steel, chemicals, optic fiber
Public debt
46.9% of GDP (2017 est.) · 32.5% of GDP (2016 est.) note: excludes indebtedness of state-owned enterprises
Exports
$43.69 billion (2019 est.) note: data are in current year dollars; $46.32 billion (2018 est.) note: data are in current year dollars
Exports - commodities
crude petroleum, natural gas, refined petroleum, iron products, fertilizers (2019)
Imports
$32.55 billion (2019 est.) note: data are in current year dollars; $35.37 billion (2018 est.) note: data are in current year dollars
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold
$16.09 billion (31 December 2017 est.) · $20.26 billion (31 December 2016 est.)
Exchange rates
Omani rials (OMR) per US dollar - 0.38505 (2020 est.) · 0.38505 (2019 est.) · 0.385 (2018 est.) · 0.3845 (2014 est.) · 0.3845 (2013 est.)
Energy
11 fieldsElectrification% of population · (2019)
Installed generating capacity, 8.601 million kW(2020 est.)
Coal
- production:
- 0 metric tons (2020 est.)
- consumption:
- 115,000 metric tons (2020 est.)
- exports:
- 0 metric tons (2020 est.)
- imports:
- 115,000 metric tons (2020 est.)
- proven reserves:
- 0 metric tons (2019 est.)
Petroleum
- total petroleum production:
- 978,800 bbl/day (2021 est.)
- refined petroleum consumption:
- 234,200 bbl/day (2019 est.)
- crude oil and lease condensate exports:
- 779,000 bbl/day (2018 est.)
- crude oil and lease condensate imports:
- 0 bbl/day (2018 est.)
- crude oil estimated reserves:
- 5.373 billion barrels (2021 est.)
Natural gas
- production:
- 36,596,746,000 cubic meters (2019 est.)
- consumption:
- 24,279,419,000 cubic meters (2019 est.)
- exports:
- 13,798,040,000 cubic meters (2019 est.)
- imports:
- 1,605,959,000 cubic meters (2019 est.)
- proven reserves:
- 651.286 billion cubic meters (2021 est.)
Carbon dioxide emissions
76.321 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)
- from coal and metallurgical coke:
- 191,000 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)
- from petroleum and other liquids:
- 29.682 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)
- from consumed natural gas:
- 46.447 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)
Communications
7 fieldsPer 100 inhabitants(2020 est.)
Telecommunication systems
- general assessment:
- Oman has a modern mobile sector which comprises substantial coverage of both 3G and LTE networks;
- in February 2021 commercial 5G services were launched;
- the Covid-19 pandemic has caused a spike in mobile data traffic;
- while Oman’s fixed broadband infrastructure penetration is considered low, it is being improved with the building of fiber-based networks as part of Oman’s Vision 2040 program;
- Oman has also established itself as an important communications hub in the Middle East, with access to numerous submarine cables including the 2Africa submarine cable, which should become available during 2023-2024;
- the 9,800km Oman Australia Cable running from Muscat to Perth, with the potential for a branch line to Djibouti, is making progress and is expected to be completed in December 2021;
- this additional infrastructure will provide considerable additional bandwidth (2021)
- domestic:
- fixed-line nearly 13 per 100 and mobile-cellular nearly 134 per 100;
- fixed-line phone service gradually being introduced to remote villages using wireless local loop systems (2020)
- international:
- country code - 968;
- landing points for GSA, AAE-1, SeaMeWe-5, Tata TGN-Gulf, FALCON, GBICS/MENA, MENA/Guld Bridge International, TW1, BBG, EIG, OMRAN/EPEG, and POI submarine cables providing connectivity to Asia, Africa, the Middle East, Southeast Asia and Europe;
- satellite earth stations - 2 Intelsat (Indian Ocean) (2019)
note: the COVID-19 pandemic continues to have a significant impact on production and supply chains globally; since 2020, some aspects of the telecom sector have experienced a downturn, particularly in mobile device production;
progress toward 5G implementation has resumed, as well as upgrades to infrastructure; consumer spending on telecom services has increased due to the surge in demand for capacity and bandwidth; the crucial nature of telecom services as a tool for work and school from home is still evident, and the spike in this area has seen growth opportunities for development of new tools and increased services
Broadcast media
- 1 state-run TV broadcaster;
- TV stations transmitting from Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Iran, and Yemen available via satellite TV;
- state-run radio operates multiple stations;
- first private radio station began operating in 2007 and several additional stations now operating (2019)
Transportation
10 fieldsAirports by runway lengthpaved left, unpaved right
Networkskm
National air transport system
- number of registered air carriers:
- 2 (2020); inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers: 57
- annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers:
- 10,438,241 (2018)
- annual freight traffic on registered air carriers:
- 510.43 million (2018) mt-km
Pipelines
106 km condensate, 4,224 km gas, 3,558 km oil, 33 km oil/gas/water, 264 km refined products (2013)
Roadways
- total:
- 60,230 km (2012)
- paved:
- 29,685 km (2012) (includes 1,943 km of expressways)
- unpaved:
- 30,545 km (2012)
Ports and terminals
- major seaport(s):
- Mina' Qabus, Salalah, Suhar
- container port(s) (TEUs):
- Salalah (4,109,000) (2019)
- LNG terminal(s) (export):
- Qalhat
Military and Security
7 fieldsPersonnel strengthsone square, 1,000 people · (2022)
Military and security forces
- Sultan's Armed Forces (SAF):
- Royal Army of Oman (RAO), Royal Navy of Oman (RNO), Royal Air Force of Oman (RAFO), Royal Guard of Oman (RGO);
- Royal Oman Police (ROP):
note: in addition to its policing duties, the Royal Oman Police conducts many administrative functions similar to the responsibilities of a Ministry of Interior in other countries
Military equipment inventories and acquisitions
- the SAF's inventory includes a mix of older and some more modern weapons systems from a variety of suppliers, particularly Europe and the US;
- since 2010, the UK and the US have been the leading suppliers of arms to Oman (2022)
Military service age and obligation
18-30 years of age for voluntary military service (women have been allowed to serve since 2011); no conscription (2022)
Military - note
- the SAF has a longstanding security relationship with the British military going back to the 18 th century;
- as of 2022, the SAF and the British maintained a joint training base in Oman and exercised together regularly;
- in 2017, Oman and the British signed an agreement allowing the British military the use of facilities at Al Duqm Port;
- in 2019, the US obtained access to the port (2022)
Maritime threats
the Maritime Administration of the US Department of Transportation has issued a Maritime Advisory (2022-003 Persian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, Gulf of Oman, Arabian Sea, Red Sea-Threats to US and International Shipping from Iran) effective 28 February 2022, which states in part that "heightened military activities and increased political tensions in this region continue to present risk to commercial shipping...there is a continued possibility that Iran and/or its regional proxies could take actions against US and partner interests in the region";
Coalition Task Force (CTF) Sentinel has been established to provide escorts for commercial shipping transiting the Persian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz, and Gulf of Oman
Transnational Issues
2 fieldsDisputes - international
- Oman-Saudi Arabia :
- none identified
- Oman-UAE :
- boundary agreement reportedly signed and ratified with UAE in 2003 for entire border, including Oman's Musandam Peninsula and Al Madhah exclave, but details of the alignment have not been made public;
- Oman and UAE signed the final demarcation of their land border in 2008
- Oman-Yemen :
- Oman and Yemen signed a border agreement in 1992; demarcation of their border was completed in 1995
Cite this entry
Central Intelligence Agency. “Oman.” The World Factbook 2022. Archived by The Factbook, thefactbook.org/oman/2022.