Economic overview Tunisia, in 36 editions.

The economy depends primarily on petroleum, phosphates, tourism, and exports
of light manufactures for continued growth. manufactures. Following two years of drought-induced economic
decline, the economy made a strong recovery in 1990 as a result of a
bountiful harvest, continued export growth, and higher domestic investment.
Continued high inflation and unemployment have eroded popular support for
the government, however, and forced Tunis to slow the pace of economic
reform. Nonetheless, the government appears committed to implementing its
IMF-supported structural adjustment program and to servicing its foreign
debt.

The economy depends primarily on petroleum, phosphates, tourism, and exports
of light manufactures. Following two years of drought-induced economic
decline, the economy made a strong recovery came back strongly in 1990 1990-92 as a result of a good
bountiful harvest, harvests, continued export growth, and higher domestic investment. High
Continued high inflation and unemployment have has eroded popular support for
the government, however, and
forced Tunis to slow the pace of economic
reform. Nonetheless, the
government appears committed to implementing its
IMF-supported structural
adjustment program and to servicing its foreign
debt.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural,
agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Detailed
Detailed governmental control of economic affairs has gradually
lessened over
the past decade, including increasing privatization of
trade and
commerce, simplification of the tax structure, and a
cautious approach
to debt. Real growth has averaged roughly 5% 4.2% in 1991-94, 1991-95,
and inflation
has been moderate. Growth in tourism and IMF support
have been key
elements in this solid record. Drought, especially in
the south, held back GDP growth in 1995. Further privatization and further
further improvements in government administrative efficiency are
among the
challenges for the future.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important
agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors.
Detailed governmental control of economic affairs has gradually
lessened over the past decade, including decade with increasing privatization of
trade
and commerce, simplification of the tax structure, and a
cautious
approach to debt. Real growth has averaged 4.2% 4.5% in 1991-95,
1991-96, and
inflation has been moderate. Growth in tourism and IMF support increased trade
have been key elements in this solid record. Drought, especially in Agricultural production
the south, held back accounted for a major portion of growth in GDP in 1996, growth having
been adversely affected by drought in 1995. Further privatization and privatization, the
further attraction of increased foreign investment, and improvements in
government administrative efficiency are
among the challenges for the future.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important
agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors.
Detailed governmental Governmental control of economic affairs has gradually
lessened over
the past decade with increasing privatization of trade
and commerce,
simplification of the tax structure, and a cautious
prudent approach to debt.
Real growth has averaged 4.5% 4.6% in 1991-96, 1992-96 and reached 5.6% in 1997, down
inflation from 6.9% in 1996, which benefited from a record cereal crop.
Inflation has been moderate. Growth in tourism and increased trade
have been key elements in this solid record. Agricultural production Tunisia's association
accounted for a major portion of growth in GDP in 1996, growth having agreement with the European Union entered into force on 1 March 1998,
been adversely affected by drought in 1995. the first such accord between the EU and Mediterranean countries to be
activated. Under the agreement Tunisia will gradually remove barriers
to trade with the EU over the next decade. Further privatization, the
attraction of increased foreign investment, and improvements in
government efficiency are among the challenges for the future.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important
agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors.
Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has
gradually lessened over
the past decade with increasing privatization of trade and commerce,
privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent
approach to debt.
Real growth averaged 4.6% 4.0% in 1992-96 1993-97 and reached 5.6% in 1997, down
from 6.9% 5.0% in 1996, which benefited from a record cereal crop.
1998. Inflation has been moderate. Growth in tourism and
increased trade
have been key elements in this solid record. steady growth.
Tunisia's association
agreement with the European Union entered into
force on 1 March 1998,
the first such accord between the EU and
Mediterranean countries to be
activated. Under the agreement Tunisia
will gradually remove barriers
to trade with the EU over the next
decade. Further Broader privatization, further liberalization of the
attraction of increased investment code to increase foreign investment, and improvements in
government efficiency are among the challenges for the future.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important
agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors.
Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has
gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing
privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent
approach to debt. Real growth averaged 4.0% in 1993-97 and reached
5.0% in 1998. Inflation has been moderate. the 1990s, and inflation is slowing. Growth in tourism and
increased trade have been key elements in this steady growth.
Tunisia's association agreement with the European Union entered into
force on 1 March 1998, the first such accord between the EU and
Mediterranean countries to be activated. Under the agreement Tunisia
will gradually remove barriers to trade with the EU over the next
decade. Broader privatization, further liberalization of the
investment code to increase foreign investment, and improvements in
government efficiency are among the challenges for the future.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Real growth averaged 5.0% 5.5% in the 1990s, past four years, and inflation is slowing. Growth in tourism and increased trade have been key elements in this steady growth. Tunisia's association agreement with the European Union entered into force on 1 March 1998, the first such accord between the EU and Mediterranean countries to be activated. Under the agreement Tunisia will gradually remove barriers to trade with the EU over the next decade. Broader privatization, further liberalization of the investment code to increase foreign investment, and improvements in government efficiency are among the challenges for the future.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Real growth averaged 5.5% 5.4% in the past four five years, and inflation is slowing. Growth in tourism and increased trade have been key elements in this steady growth. growth, although tourism revenues have slowed since 11 September 2001 and may take a year or more to fully recover. Tunisia's association agreement with the European Union entered into force on 1 March 1998, the first such accord between the EU and a Mediterranean countries to be activated. country. Under the agreement Tunisia will gradually remove barriers to trade with the EU over the next decade. Broader privatization, further liberalization of the investment code to increase foreign investment, and improvements in government efficiency are among the challenges for the future.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Real growth averaged 5.4% in the past five years, and inflation is slowing. Growth in tourism and increased trade have been key elements in this steady growth, although tourism revenues have 1997-2001 but slowed since 11 September 2001 and may take a year or more to fully recover. Tunisia's association agreement with the European Union entered into force on 1 March 1998, the first such accord between the EU 1.9% in 2002 because of agricultural drought, slow investment, and a Mediterranean country. Under lackluster tourism. Increased rainfall portends higher growth levels for 2003, but continued regional tension from the agreement Tunisia war in Iraq will most likely continue to suppress tourism earnings. Tunisia has agreed to gradually remove barriers to trade with the EU European Union over the next decade. Broader privatization, further liberalization of the investment code to increase foreign investment, and improvements in government efficiency efficiency, and reduction of the trade deficit are among the challenges for the future.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Real growth averaged 5.4% in 1997-2001 but growth, averaging 5% for the latter half of the last decade, slowed to a 15-year low of 1.9% in 2002 because of agricultural drought, slow investment, and lackluster tourism. Increased rainfall portends higher growth levels for 2003, but continued regional tension from the war Better rains in Iraq will most likely continue 2003, however, pushed GDP growth up to suppress an estimated 6 percent, and tourism earnings. also recovered after the end of combat operations in Iraq. GDP growth remained at 6% in 2004. Tunisia has agreed to gradually remove barriers to trade with the European Union over the next decade. Broader privatization, further liberalization of the investment code to increase foreign investment, improvements in government efficiency, and reduction of the trade deficit are among the challenges for the future.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Real growth, averaging 5% for the latter half of Progressive social policies also have helped raise living conditions in Tunisia relative to the last decade, region. Real growth slowed to a 15-year low of 1.9% in 2002 because of agricultural drought, slow investment, drought and lackluster tourism. Better rains in 2003, 2003 and 2004, however, pushed helped push GDP growth up to an estimated 6 percent, and tourism above 5% for these years. Tourism also recovered after the end of combat operations in Iraq. GDP growth remained at 6% in 2004. Tunisia has agreed to is gradually remove removing barriers to trade with the European Union over the next decade. Union. Broader privatization, further liberalization of the investment code to increase foreign investment, improvements in government efficiency, and reduction of the trade deficit are among the challenges for the future. ahead.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Progressive social policies also have helped raise living conditions in Tunisia relative to the region. Real growth slowed to a 15-year low of 1.9% in 2002 because of agricultural drought and lackluster tourism. Better rains in 2003 and 2004, through 2005, however, helped push GDP growth above to about 5% for these years. Tourism also recovered after the end of combat operations in Iraq. Tunisia is gradually removing barriers to trade with the European Union. EU. Broader privatization, further liberalization of the investment code to increase foreign investment, improvements in government efficiency, and reduction of the trade deficit are among the challenges ahead.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Progressive social policies also have helped raise living conditions in Tunisia relative to the region. Real growth slowed to a 15-year low of 1.9% in 2002 because of agricultural drought and lackluster tourism. Better rains in 2003 through 2005, however, Increased rain helped to push GDP growth to about an average rate of 5% for these years. Tourism also recovered after in 2003-05. However, a recession in agriculture, weak expansion in the end of combat operations tourism and textile sectors, and increasing import costs due to rising world energy prices cut growth to 4% in Iraq. 2006. Tunisia is gradually removing barriers to trade with the EU. Broader privatization, further liberalization of the investment code to increase foreign investment, improvements in government efficiency, and reduction of the trade deficit are among the challenges ahead.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, energy, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Progressive social policies also have helped raise living conditions in Tunisia relative to the region. Real growth slowed to a 15-year low of 1.9% growth, which averaged almost 5% over the past decade, reached 6.3% in 2002 2007 because of agricultural drought and lackluster tourism. Increased rain helped to push GDP growth to an average rate of 5% development in 2003-05. However, non-textile manufacturing, a recession in agriculture, weak expansion recovery in the tourism and textile sectors, agricultural production, and increasing import costs due to rising world energy prices cut strong growth to 4% in 2006. the services sector. However, Tunisia is gradually removing barriers will need to trade with reach even higher growth levels to create sufficient employment opportunities for an already large number of unemployed as well as the EU. growing population of university graduates. Broader privatization, further liberalization of the investment code to increase foreign investment, improvements in government efficiency, and reduction of the trade deficit are among the challenges ahead.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Progressive social policies also have helped raise living conditions in Tunisia relative to the region. Real growth, which averaged almost 5% over the past decade, reached 6.3% declined to 4.7% in 2007 2008 and probably will decline further in 2009 because of development economic contraction and slowing of import demand in Europe - Tunisia's largest export market. However, development of non-textile manufacturing, a recovery in agricultural production, and strong growth in the services sector. However, sector somewhat mitigated the economic effect of slowing exports. Tunisia will need to reach even higher growth levels to create sufficient employment opportunities for an already large number of unemployed as well as the growing population of university graduates. Broader privatization, further liberalization of The challenges ahead include: privatizing industry, liberalizing the investment code to increase foreign investment, improvements in improving government efficiency, and reduction of reducing the trade deficit are among deficit, and reducing socioeconomic disparities in the challenges ahead. impoverished south and west.

Tunisia has a diverse economy, with important agricultural, mining, tourism, and manufacturing sectors. Governmental control of economic affairs while still heavy has gradually lessened over the past decade with increasing privatization, simplification of the tax structure, and a prudent approach to debt. Progressive social policies also have helped raise living conditions in Tunisia relative to the region. Real growth, which averaged almost 5% over the past decade, declined to 4.7% 4.6% in 2008 and probably will decline further to 3-4% in 2009 2009-10 because of economic contraction and slowing of import demand in Europe - Tunisia's largest export market. However, development of non-textile manufacturing, a recovery in agricultural production, and strong growth in the services sector somewhat mitigated the economic effect of slowing exports. Tunisia will need to reach even higher growth levels to create sufficient employment opportunities for an already large number of unemployed as well as the growing population of university graduates. The challenges ahead include: privatizing industry, liberalizing the investment code to increase foreign investment, improving government efficiency, reducing the trade deficit, and reducing socioeconomic disparities in the impoverished south and west.

Tunisia has a Tunisia's diverse, market-oriented economy, with important agricultural, mining, tourism, economy has long been cited as a success story in Africa and manufacturing sectors the Middle East, but it faces an array of challenges in the wake of during the country's 2011 revolution. ongoing political transition. Following an ill-fated experiment with socialist economic policies in the 1960s, Tunisia successfully embarked on a successful strategy focused on bolstering exports, foreign investment, and tourism, leading to several decades all of strong, sustained GDP growth. which have become central to the country''s economy. Key exports now include textiles and apparel, food products, petroleum products, chemicals, and phosphates, with about 80% of all exports going to bound for Tunisia''s main economic partner, the European Union. The tenure Tunisia''s liberal strategy, coupled with investments in education and infrastructure, fueled decades of former 4-5% annual GDP growth and improving living standards. Former President (1987-2011) Zine el Abidine BEN ALI (1987-2011) was marked by increasing continued these policies, but as his reign wore on cronyism and corruption that stymied economic performance and failed to reduce high unemployment, particularly unemployment rose among younger Tunisians. In the country''s growing ranks of university graduates. These grievances contributed to the January 2011 overthrow of BEN ALI was overthrown, ALI, sending Tunisia's Tunisia''s economy into a tailspin. tailspin as tourism and investment declined sharply. As the economy recovers, Tunisia's Tunisia''s government faces challenges reassuring businesses and investors, bringing budget and current account deficits under control, shoring up the country's country''s financial system, bringing down high unemployment, and reducing economic disparities between the more developed coastal region and the impoverished interior.

Tunisia's diverse, market-oriented economy has long been cited as a success story in Africa and the Middle East, but it faces an array of challenges during the country's ongoing political transition. Following an ill-fated experiment with socialist economic policies in the 1960s, Tunisia embarked on a successful strategy focused on bolstering exports, foreign investment, and tourism, all of which have become central to the country''s country's economy. Key exports now include textiles and apparel, food products, petroleum products, chemicals, and phosphates, with about 80% of exports bound for Tunisia''s Tunisia's main economic partner, the European Union. Tunisia''s Tunisia's liberal strategy, coupled with investments in education and infrastructure, fueled decades of 4-5% annual GDP growth and improving living standards. Former President (1987-2011) Zine el Abidine BEN ALI continued these policies, but as his reign wore on cronyism and corruption stymied economic performance and unemployment rose among the country''s country's growing ranks of university graduates. These grievances contributed to the January 2011 overthrow of BEN ALI, sending Tunisia''s Tunisia's economy into a tailspin as tourism and investment declined sharply. During 2012 and 2013, the Tunisian Government’s focus on the political transition led to a neglect of the economy that resulted in several downgrades of Tunisia’s credit rating. As the economy recovers, Tunisia''s Tunisia's government faces challenges reassuring businesses and investors, bringing budget and current account deficits under control, shoring up the country''s country's financial system, bringing down high unemployment, and reducing economic disparities between the more developed coastal region and the impoverished interior.

Tunisia's diverse, market-oriented economy has long been cited as a success story in Africa and the Middle East, but it faces an array of challenges during following the country's ongoing political transition. 2011 revolution. Following an ill-fated experiment with socialist economic policies in the 1960s, Tunisia embarked on a successful strategy focused on bolstering exports, foreign investment, and tourism, all of which have become central to the country's economy. Key exports now include textiles and apparel, food products, petroleum products, chemicals, and phosphates, with about 80% of exports bound for Tunisia's main economic partner, the European Union. Tunisia's liberal strategy, coupled with investments in education and infrastructure, fueled decades of 4-5% annual GDP growth and improving living standards. Former President (1987-2011) Zine el Abidine BEN ALI continued these policies, but as his reign wore on cronyism and corruption stymied economic performance and unemployment rose among the country's growing ranks of university graduates. These grievances contributed to the January 2011 overthrow of BEN ALI, sending Tunisia's economy into a tailspin as tourism and investment declined sharply. During 2012 and 2013, the Tunisian Government’s focus on the security and political upheaval during transition led to a neglect deterioration of the economy that and resulted in several downgrades of Tunisia’s credit rating. As the economy recovers, Tunisia's government faces challenges reassuring businesses and investors, bringing budget and current account deficits under control, shoring up the country's financial system, bringing down high unemployment, and reducing economic disparities between the more developed coastal region and the impoverished interior.

Tunisia's diverse, market-oriented economy has long been cited as a success story in Africa and the Middle East, but it faces an array of challenges following the 2011 Arab Spring revolution. Following an ill-fated experiment with socialist economic policies in the 1960s, Tunisia embarked on a successful strategy focused on bolstering exports, foreign investment, and tourism, all of which have become central to the country's economy. Key exports now include textiles and apparel, food products, petroleum products, chemicals, and phosphates, with about 80% of exports bound for Tunisia's main economic partner, the European Union. EU.
Tunisia's liberal strategy, coupled with investments in education and infrastructure, fueled decades of 4-5% annual GDP growth and improving living standards. Former President (1987-2011) Zine el Abidine BEN ALI (1987-2011) continued these policies, but as his reign wore on cronyism and corruption stymied economic performance performance, and unemployment rose among the country's growing ranks of university graduates. These grievances contributed to the January 2011 overthrow of BEN ALI, sending Tunisia's economy into a tailspin as tourism and investment declined sharply. During 2012 and 2013, security and political upheaval during transition led to a deterioration of the economy and resulted
Since its establishment in several downgrades of late 2014, Tunisia’s credit rating. Tunisia's new government faces has faced challenges reassuring businesses and investors, bringing budget and current account deficits under control, shoring up the country's financial system, bringing down lowering high unemployment, and reducing economic disparities between the more developed coastal region and the impoverished interior. In 2015, successive terrorist attacks against the tourism sector and worker strikes in the phosphate sector, which combined account for nearly 15% of GDP, slowed growth to less than 1% of GDP.

Tunisia's diverse, market-oriented economy has long been cited as a success story in Africa and the Middle East, but it faces an array of challenges following the 2011 Arab Spring revolution. revolution, including slow economic growth and high unemployment. Following an ill-fated experiment with socialist economic policies in the 1960s, Tunisia embarked on a successful strategy focused on bolstering exports, foreign investment, and tourism, all of which have become central to the country's economy. Key exports now include textiles and apparel, food products, petroleum products, chemicals, and phosphates, with about 80% of exports bound for Tunisia's main economic partner, the EU.
Tunisia's liberal strategy, coupled with investments in education and infrastructure, fueled decades of 4-5% annual GDP growth and improving improved living standards. Former President Zine el Abidine BEN ALI (1987-2011) continued these policies, but as his reign wore on cronyism and corruption stymied economic performance, and unemployment rose among the country's growing ranks of university graduates. These grievances contributed to the January 2011 overthrow of BEN ALI, sending Tunisia's economy into a tailspin as tourism and investment declined sharply.
Since its establishment in late 2014, Tunisia’s new government has faced challenges reassuring businesses and investors, bringing budget and current account deficits remains under control, shoring up the country's financial system, lowering pressure to boost economic growth quickly to mitigate chronic socio-economic challenges, especially high levels of youth unemployment, and reducing economic disparities between the more developed coastal region and which has persisted since the impoverished interior. In 2015, successive revolution in 2011. Successive terrorist attacks against the tourism sector and worker strikes in the phosphate sector, which combined account for nearly 15% of GDP, slowed growth to less than 1% of GDP. GDP in 2015 and 1.5% in 2016. Tunis is seeking increased foreign investment and working with labor unions to limit labor disruption.

Tunisia's diverse, market-oriented economy has long been cited as a success story in Africa and the Middle East, but it faces – structurally designed to favor vested interests – faced an array of challenges following exposed by the 2008 global financial crisis that helped precipitate the 2011 Arab Spring revolution, revolution. After the revolution and a series of terrorist attacks, including on the country’s tourism sector, barriers to economic inclusion continued to add to slow economic growth and high unemployment. Following an ill-fated experiment with socialist economic policies in the 1960s, Tunisia embarked on a successful strategy focused on bolstering exports, foreign investment, and tourism, all of which have become central to the country's economy. Key exports now include textiles and apparel, food products, petroleum products, chemicals, and phosphates, with about 80% of exports bound for Tunisia's main economic partner, the EU.
Tunisia's liberal strategy, coupled with investments in education and infrastructure, fueled decades of 4-5% annual GDP growth and improved living standards. Former President Zine el Abidine BEN ALI (1987-2011) continued these policies, but as his reign wore on cronyism and corruption stymied economic performance, and unemployment rose among rose, and the country's growing ranks of university graduates. informal economy grew. Tunisia’s economy became less and less inclusive. These grievances contributed to the January 2011 overthrow of BEN ALI, sending further depressing Tunisia's economy into a tailspin as tourism and investment declined sharply.
Tunisia’s government remains under pressure to boost economic growth quickly to mitigate chronic socio-economic challenges, especially high levels of youth unemployment, which has persisted since the revolution in 2011. 2011 revolution. Successive terrorist attacks against the tourism sector and worker strikes in the phosphate sector, which combined account for nearly 15% of GDP, slowed growth to less than 1% of GDP in from 2015 and 1.5% in 2016. to 2017. Tunis is seeking increased foreign investment and working with labor unions the IMF through an Extended Fund Facility agreement to limit labor disruption. fix fiscal deficiencies.

Tunisia's economy – structurally designed to favor vested interests – faced an array of challenges exposed by the 2008 global financial crisis that helped precipitate the 2011 Arab Spring revolution. After the revolution and a series of terrorist attacks, including on the country’s tourism sector, barriers to economic inclusion continued to add to slow economic growth and high unemployment.
Following an ill-fated experiment with socialist economic policies in the 1960s, Tunisia focused on bolstering exports, foreign investment, and tourism, all of which have become central to the country's economy. Key exports now include textiles and apparel, food products, petroleum products, chemicals, and phosphates, with about 80% of exports bound for Tunisia's main economic partner, the EU. Tunisia's strategy, coupled with investments in education and infrastructure, fueled decades of 4-5% annual GDP growth and improved living standards. Former President Zine el Abidine BEN ALI (1987-2011) continued these policies, but as his reign wore on cronyism and corruption stymied economic performance, unemployment rose, and the informal economy grew. Tunisia’s economy became less and less inclusive. These grievances contributed to the January 2011 overthrow of BEN ALI, further depressing Tunisia's economy as tourism and investment declined sharply.
Tunisia’s government remains under pressure to boost economic growth quickly to mitigate chronic socio-economic challenges, especially high levels of youth unemployment, which has persisted since the 2011 revolution. Successive terrorist attacks against the tourism sector and worker strikes in the phosphate sector, which combined account for nearly 15% of GDP, slowed growth from 2015 to 2017. Tunis is seeking increased foreign investment and working with the IMF through an Extended Fund Facility agreement to fix fiscal deficiencies.