Zimbabwe
Republic of Zimbabwe
presidential republicIndependence 18 April 1980 (from the UK)
Zimbabwe as the 2025 edition of the CIA World Factbook published it: 148 fields, one of 36 editions from 1990 to 2025.
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Introduction
1 fieldBackground
The hunter-gatherer San people first inhabited the area that eventually became Zimbabwe. Farming communities migrated to the area around A.D. 500 during the Bantu expansion, and Shona-speaking societies began to develop in the Limpopo valley and Zimbabwean highlands around the 9th century. These societies traded with Arab merchants on the Indian Ocean coast and organized under the Kingdom of Mapungubwe in the 11th century.
A series of powerful trade-oriented Shona states succeeded Mapungubwe, including the Kingdom of Zimbabwe (ca. 1220-1450), Kingdom of Mutapa (ca. 1450-1760), and the Rozwi Empire. The Rozwi Empire expelled Portuguese colonists from the Zimbabwean plateau, but the Ndebele clan of Zulu King MZILIKAZI eventually conquered the area in 1838 during the era of conflict and population displacement known as the Mfecane.
In the 1880s, colonists arrived with the British South Africa Company (BSAC) and obtained a written concession for mining rights from Ndebele King LOBENGULA. The king later disavowed the concession and accused the BSAC agents of deceit. The BSAC annexed Mashonaland and then conquered Matabeleland during the First Matabele War of 1893-1894, establishing company rule over the territory. In 1923, the UK annexed BSAC holdings south of the Zambezi River, which became the British colony of Southern Rhodesia.
The 1930 Land Apportionment Act restricted Black land ownership and established rules that would favor the White minority for decades. A new constitution in 1961 further cemented White minority rule.
In 1965, the government under White Prime Minister Ian SMITH unilaterally declared its independence from the UK. London did not recognize Rhodesia’s independence and demanded more voting rights for the Black majority in the country. International diplomacy and an uprising by Black Zimbabweans led to biracial elections in 1979 and independence (as Zimbabwe) in 1980. Robert MUGABE, who led the uprising and became the nation's first prime minister, was the country's only ruler (as president since 1987) from independence until 2017.
In the mid-1980s, the government tortured and killed thousands of civilians in a crackdown on dissent known as the Gukurahundi campaign. Economic mismanagement and chaotic implementation of land redistribution policies periodically crippled the economy. General elections in 2002, 2008, and 2013 were severely flawed and widely condemned but allowed MUGABE to remain president. In 2017, Vice President Emmerson MNANGAGWA became president after a military intervention that forced MUGABE to resign, and MNANGAGWA cemented power by sidelining rival Grace MUGABE (Robert MUGABE’s wife). In 2018, MNANGAGWA won the presidential election, and he has maintained the government's longstanding practice of violently disrupting protests and politicizing institutions. Economic conditions remain dire under MNANGAGWA.
Geography
Southern Africa, between South Africa and Zambia
20 fieldsLand useshare of 390,757 sq km
Natural resources
coal, chromium ore, asbestos, gold, nickel, copper, iron ore, vanadium, lithium, tin, platinum group metals
Major rivers (by length in km)
- Zambezi (shared with Zambia [s]), Angola, Namibia, Botswana, and Mozambique [m]) - 2,740 km;
- Limpopo (shared with South Africa [s], Botswana, and Mozambique [m]) - 1,800 km
note: [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth
Major watersheds (area sq km)
- Indian Ocean drainage:
- Zambezi (1,332,412 sq km)
- Internal (endorheic basin) drainage:
- Okavango Basin (863,866 sq km)
Population distribution
aside from major urban agglomerations in Harare and Bulawayo, population distribution is fairly even, with slightly greater overall numbers in the eastern half, as shown in this population distribution map
Geography - note
- landlocked;
- the Zambezi forms a natural river boundary with Zambia;
- in full flood (February-April), the massive Victoria Falls on the river forms the world's largest curtain of falling water;
- Lake Kariba on the Zambia-Zimbabwe border forms the world's largest reservoir by volume (180 cu km; 43 cu mi)
People and Society
34 fieldsAge structuremale left, female right · (2024 est.)
Per 1,000 population(2025 est.)
Male · female(2019 est.)
Religions(2022 est.)
Ethnic groups
African 99.6% (predominantly Shona; Ndebele is the second largest ethnic group), other (includes Caucasian, Asiatic, mixed race) 0.4% (2022 est.)
Languages
Shona (official, most widely spoken) 80.9%, Ndebele (official, second most widely spoken) 11.5%, English (official, traditionally used for official business) 0.3%, 13 minority languages (official; includes Chewa, Chibarwe, Kalanga, Koisan, Nambya, Ndau, Shangani, sign language, Sotho, Tonga, Tswana, Venda, and Xhosa) 7%, other 0.3% (2022 est.) note: data represent population by mother tongue
Population distribution
aside from major urban agglomerations in Harare and Bulawayo, population distribution is fairly even, with slightly greater overall numbers in the eastern half, as shown in this population distribution map
Sex ratio
- at birth:
- 1.03 male(s)/female
- 0-14 years:
- 1.02 male(s)/female
- 15-64 years:
- 0.92 male(s)/female
- 65 years and over:
- 0.68 male(s)/female
- total population:
- 0.95 male(s)/female (2024 est.)
Infant mortality rate
- total:
- 32.8 deaths/1,000 live births (2025 est.)
- male:
- 37 deaths/1,000 live births
- female:
- 29.6 deaths/1,000 live births
Alcohol consumption per capita
- total:
- 3.11 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
- beer:
- 1.2 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
- wine:
- 0.05 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
- spirits:
- 0.39 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
- other alcohols:
- 1.47 liters of pure alcohol (2019 est.)
Child marriage
- women married by age 15:
- 5.4% (2019)
- women married by age 18:
- 33.7% (2019)
- men married by age 18:
- 1.9% (2019)
Environment
10 fieldsLand use(2023 est.)
Environmental issues
- deforestation;
- soil erosion;
- land degradation;
- air and water pollution;
- poaching;
- toxic waste and heavy metal pollution from mining
International environmental agreements
- party to:
- Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands
- signed, but not ratified:
- none of the selected agreements
Urbanization
- urban population:
- 32.5% of total population (2023)
- rate of urbanization:
- 2.41% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)
Carbon dioxide emissions
12.578 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 est.)
- from coal and metallurgical coke:
- 7.629 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 est.)
- from petroleum and other liquids:
- 4.949 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2023 est.)
Waste and recycling
- municipal solid waste generated annually:
- 1.45 million tons (2024 est.)
- percent of municipal solid waste recycled:
- 21.8% (2022 est.)
Total water withdrawal
- municipal:
- 547.078 million cubic meters (2022 est.)
- industrial:
- 81.352 million cubic meters (2022 est.)
- agricultural:
- 4.281 billion cubic meters (2022 est.)
Government
Presidential republic; President Emmerson Dambudzo MNANGAGWA (since 4 September 2023); Vice President Constantino CHIWENGA (since 11 September 2023)
25 fieldsPresidential electionpercent of vote
Country name
- conventional long form:
- Republic of Zimbabwe
- conventional short form:
- Zimbabwe
- former:
- Southern Rhodesia, Rhodesia, Zimbabwe-Rhodesia
- etymology:
- takes its name from the Kingdom of Zimbabwe (13th-15th century) and its capital of Great Zimbabwe, which was built of stone;
- the name Zimbabwe comes from the Bantu phrase zimba we bahwe , meaning "houses of stones;" the former name, Rhodesia, was derived from the name of British colonial administrator Cecil RHODES
Capital
- name:
- Harare
- geographic coordinates:
- 17 49 S, 31 02 E
- time difference:
- UTC+2 (7 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)
- etymology:
- named after a village of Harare at the site of the present capital;
- the village name derived from a Shona chieftain, NE-HARAWA, whose name meant "he who does not sleep"
Administrative divisions
- 8 provinces and 2 cities* with provincial status;
- Bulawayo*, Harare*, Manicaland, Mashonaland Central, Mashonaland East, Mashonaland West, Masvingo, Matabeleland North, Matabeleland South, Midlands
Constitution
- history:
- previous 1965 (at Rhodesian independence), 1979 (Lancaster House Agreement), 1980 (at Zimbabwean independence);
- latest final draft completed January 2013, approved by referendum 16 March 2013, approved by Parliament 9 May 2013, effective 22 May 2013
- amendment process:
- proposed by the Senate or by the National Assembly;
- passage requires two-thirds majority vote by the membership of both houses of Parliament and assent of the president of the republic;
- amendments to constitutional chapters on fundamental human rights and freedoms and on agricultural lands also require approval by a majority of votes cast in a referendum
International law organization participation
has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; non-party state to the ICCt
Citizenship
- citizenship by birth:
- no
- citizenship by descent only:
- the father must be a citizen of Zimbabwe; in the case of a child born out of wedlock, the mother must be a citizen
- dual citizenship recognized:
- no
- residency requirement for naturalization:
- 5 years
Executive branch
- chief of state:
- President Emmerson Dambudzo MNANGAGWA (since 4 September 2023)
- head of government:
- Vice President Constantino CHIWENGA (since 11 September 2023)
- cabinet:
- Cabinet appointed by president, responsible to National Assembly
- election/appointment process:
- each presidential candidate nominated with a nomination paper signed by at least 10 registered voters (at least 1 candidate from each province) and directly elected by absolute-majority popular vote in 2 rounds, if needed, for a 5-year term (no term limits);
- co-vice presidents drawn from party leadership
- most recent election date:
- 23 August 2023
- election results:
- ;
- 2023: Emmerson MNANGAGWA reelected president in first round;
- percent of vote - Emmerson MNANGAGWA (ZANU-PF) 52.6%, Nelson CHAMISA (MDC-T) 44%, Wilbert MUBAIWA (NPC) 1.2%, other 2.2%
- 2018: Emmerson MNANGAGWA elected president in first round;
- percent of vote - Emmerson MNANGAGWA (ZANU-PF) 50.7%, Nelson CHAMISA (MDC-T) 44.4%, Thokozani KHUPE (MDC-N) 0.9%, other 4%
- expected date of next election:
- 2028
Legislative branch - lower chamber
- chamber name:
- National Assembly
- number of seats:
- 280 (all directly elected)
- electoral system:
- mixed system
- scope of elections:
- full renewal
- term in office:
- 5 years
- most recent election date:
- 45161
- parties elected and seats per party:
- ZANU-PF (175); Citizens Coalition for Change (CCC) (104)
- percentage of women in chamber:
- 30.1%
- expected date of next election:
- August 2028
note: 60 seats are reserved for women and 10 additional seats are reserved for candidates aged 21 - 35
Legislative branch - upper chamber
- chamber name:
- Senate
- number of seats:
- 80 (60 directly elected; 20 indirectly elected)
- electoral system:
- proportional representation
- scope of elections:
- full renewal
- term in office:
- 5 years
- most recent election date:
- 45161
- parties elected and seats per party:
- ZANU-PF (33); Citizens Coalition for Change (CCC) (27)
- percentage of women in chamber:
- 44.3%
- expected date of next election:
- August 2028
note: 18 seats are reserved for the National Council Chiefs, and 2 reserved for members with disabilities
Judicial branch
- highest court(s):
- Supreme Court (consists of the chief justice and 4 judges); Constitutional Court (consists of the chief and deputy chief justices and 9 judges)
- judge selection and term of office:
- Supreme Court judges appointed by the president on recommendation of the Judicial Service Commission, an independent body consisting of the chief justice, Public Service Commission chairman, attorney general, and 2-3 members appointed by the president;
- judges normally serve until age 65 but can elect to serve until age 70;
- Constitutional Court judge appointment NA;
- judges serve nonrenewable 15-year terms
- subordinate courts:
- High Court;
- Labor Court;
- Administrative Court;
- regional magistrate courts;
- customary law courts;
- special courts
Political parties
- Citizens Coalition for Change
- Movement for Democratic Change or MDC-T
- National People's Congress or NPC
- Zimbabwe African National Union-Patriotic Front or ZANU-PF
- Zimbabwe African Peoples Union or ZAPU
Diplomatic representation in the US
- chief of mission:
- Ambassador (vacant); Chargé d'Affaires Sarah BHOROMA (since 12 November 2024)
- chancery:
- 1608 New Hampshire Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20009
- telephone:
- [1] (202) 332-7100
- FAX:
- [1] (202) 483-9326
- email address and website:
- [email protected]; https://zimembassydc.org/
Diplomatic representation from the US
- chief of mission:
- Ambassador Pamela M. TREMONT (since August 2024)
- embassy:
- 2 Lorraine Drive, Bluffhill, Harare
- mailing address:
- 2180 Harare Place, Washington DC 20521-2180
- telephone:
- [263] 867-701-1000
- FAX:
- [263] 24-233-4320
- email address and website:
- [email protected]; https://zw.usembassy.gov/
International organization participation
ACP, AfDB, ATMIS, AU, COMESA, FAO, G-15, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ISO, ITSO, ITU, ITUC (NGOs), MIGA, NAM, OPCW, PCA, SADC, UN, UNAMID, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UNISFA, UNMIL, UNMISS, UNOCI, UNSOM, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO, WTO
Flag
- description:
- seven equal horizontal bands of green (top), yellow, red, black, red, yellow, and green, with a white isosceles triangle edged in black based on the left side;
- in the middle of the triangle, a yellow bird is on top of a five-pointed red star
- meaning:
- the bird represents the long history of the country;
- white stands for peace, green for agriculture, yellow for mineral wealth, red for the blood shed to achieve independence, and black for the people
National anthem(s)
- title:
- "Kalibusiswe Ilizwe leZimbabwe" [Ndebele] "Simudzai Mureza WeZimbabwe" [Shona] (Blessed Be the Land of Zimbabwe)
- lyrics/music:
- Solomon MUTSWAIRO/Fred Lecture CHANGUNDEGA
- history:
- adopted 1994; lyrics in the country's three main languages were written by Zimbabwean poet and academic MUTSWAIRO
National heritage
- total World Heritage Sites:
- 5 (3 cultural, 2 natural)
- selected World Heritage Site locales:
- Mana Pools National Park, Sapi, and Chewore Safari Areas (n);
- Great Zimbabwe National Monument (c);
- Khami Ruins National Monument (c);
- Mosi-oa-Tunya/Victoria Falls (n);
- Matobo Hills (c)
Economy
31 fieldsBy end use% of GDP · (2024 est.)
Budget(2018 est.)
Economic overview
- low income Sub-Saharan economy;
- political instability and endemic corruption have prevented reforms and stalled debt restructuring;
- new Zimbabwe Gold (ZiG) currency latest effort to combat ongoing hyperinflation;
- reliant on natural resource extraction, agriculture and remittances
GDP - composition, by sector of origin
- agriculture:
- 5.4% (2024 est.)
- industry:
- 31.8% (2024 est.)
- services:
- 55.8% (2024 est.)
note: figures may not total 100% due to non-allocated consumption not captured in sector-reported data
Agricultural products
sugarcane, beef, maize, cabbages, potatoes, tomatoes, milk, onions, bananas, wheat (2023) note: top ten agricultural products based on tonnage
Industries
mining (coal, gold, platinum, copper, nickel, tin, diamonds, clay, numerous metallic and nonmetallic ores), steel, wood products, cement, chemicals, fertilizer, clothing and footwear, foodstuffs, beverages
Labor force
6.386 million (2024 est.) note: number of people ages 15 or older who are employed or seeking work
Unemployment rate
8.6% (2024 est.) · 8.8% (2023 est.) · 10.1% (2022 est.) note: % of labor force seeking employment
Youth unemployment rate (ages 15-24)
- total:
- 14% (2024 est.)
- male:
- 12.9% (2024 est.)
- female:
- 15.4% (2024 est.)
note: % of labor force ages 15-24 seeking employment
Population below poverty line
38.3% (2019 est.) note: % of population with income below national poverty line
Gini Index coefficient - distribution of family income
50.3 (2020 est.) note: index (0-100) of income distribution; higher values represent greater inequality
Remittances
9.4% of GDP (2023 est.) · 9.4% of GDP (2022 est.) · 9.4% of GDP (2021 est.) note: personal transfers and compensation between resident and non-resident individuals/households/entities
Taxes and other revenues
7.2% (of GDP) (2018 est.) note: central government tax revenue as a % of GDP
Current account balance
$133.877 million (2023 est.) · $304.966 million (2022 est.) · $348.215 million (2021 est.) note: balance of payments - net trade and primary/secondary income in current dollars
Exports
$7.603 billion (2023 est.) · $7.453 billion (2022 est.) · $6.575 billion (2021 est.) note: balance of payments - exports of goods and services in current dollars
Exports - partners
UAE 45%, China 18%, South Africa 15%, Mozambique 4%, Hong Kong 2% (2023) note: top five export partners based on percentage share of exports
Exports - commodities
gold, tobacco, nickel, minerals, diamonds (2023) note: top five export commodities based on value in dollars
Imports
$10.293 billion (2023 est.) · $9.569 billion (2022 est.) · $8.104 billion (2021 est.) note: balance of payments - imports of goods and services in current dollars
Imports - partners
South Africa 37%, China 15%, Bahamas, The 5%, Singapore 5%, UAE 4% (2023) note: top five import partners based on percentage share of imports
Imports - commodities
refined petroleum, fertilizers, trucks, soybean oil, stone processing machines (2023) note: top five import commodities based on value in dollars
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold
$484.973 million (2024 est.) · $115.53 million (2023 est.) · $598.622 million (2022 est.) note: holdings of gold (year-end prices)/foreign exchange/special drawing rights in current dollars
Debt - external
$6.671 billion (2023 est.) note: present value of external debt in current US dollars
Exchange rates
Zimbabwean dollars (ZWD) per US dollar - 3,266.332 (2024 est.) · 3,509.172 (2023 est.) · 374.954 (2022 est.) · 88.552 (2021 est.) · 51.329 (2020 est.) note: ongoing hyperinflation rendered Zimbabwean dollar essentially worthless; introduction of Zimbabwe Gold (ZiG) as new currency effective April 2024
Energy
6 fieldsElectrification% of population · (2022 est.)
Installed generating capacity, 2.491 million kW(2023 est.)
Coal
- production:
- 7.968 million metric tons (2023 est.)
- consumption:
- 6.705 million metric tons (2023 est.)
- exports:
- 984,000 metric tons (2023 est.)
- imports:
- 71,000 metric tons (2023 est.)
- proven reserves:
- 502 million metric tons (2023 est.)
Petroleum
- total petroleum production:
- 800 bbl/day (2023 est.)
- refined petroleum consumption:
- 34,000 bbl/day (2023 est.)
Communications
6 fieldsPer 100 inhabitants(2023–24 est.)
Broadcast media
- government owns all local radio and TV stations;
- foreign shortwave broadcasts and satellite TV available;
- in rural areas, access to TV broadcasts is extremely limited;
- analog TV only, no digital service (2017)
Transportation
4 fieldsMilitary and Security
Zimbabwe Defense Forces (ZDF): Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA), Air Force of Zimbabwe (AFZ) | Ministry of Home Affairs: Zimbabwe Republic Police (2025)
6 fieldsPersonnel strengthsone square, 100 people · (2025)
Military and security forces
- Zimbabwe Defense Forces (ZDF):
- Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA), Air Force of Zimbabwe (AFZ)
- Ministry of Home Affairs:
- Zimbabwe Republic Police (2025)
Military equipment inventories and acquisitions
the ZDF inventory is comprised mostly of Russian/Soviet-era and Chinese armaments with smaller quantities of older or obsolescent material from countries such as Brazil, France, Italy, South Africa, the UK, and the US (2025) note: since the early 2010s, Zimbabwe has been under an arms embargo from the EU, as well as targeted sanctions from Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the UK, and the US
Military service age and obligation
- 18-22 years of age for voluntary military service for men and women (enlisted personnel);
- 18-24 for officer cadets;
- 18-30 for technical/specialist personnel;
- no conscription (2025)
Military - note
the primary responsibilities of the Zimbabwe Defense Forces (ZDF) are protecting the country’s sovereignty and territory and securing its borders; it also has a role in domestic security and socio-economic development projects and has continued to be active in the country’s politics since the 2017 military-assisted political transition;
the ZDF is part of the Southern Africa Development Community (SADC) Standby Force and provided troops for the SADC military deployment to Mozambique from 2021-2024; Zimbabwe has defense ties with China and Russia
the ZDF was formed after independence from the former Rhodesian Army and the two guerrilla forces that opposed it during the Rhodesian Civil War (aka "Bush War") of the 1970s, the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) and the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA);
the ZDF intervened in the Mozambique Civil War (1983-1992), the Democratic Republic of Congo during the Second Congo War (1998-2003), and the Angolan Civil War (1975-2002) during the late 1990s (2025)
Space
3 fieldsSpace agency/agencies
Zimbabwe National Geospatial and Space Agency (ZINGSA; established in 2019 and officially launched in 2021) (2025) note: ZINGSA is under the Ministry of Higher and Tertiary Education, Science, and Technology Development
Space program overview
- has a nascent program with the goal of using space technologies in economic development, including remote sensing capabilities to assist with monitoring or managing agriculture, food security, climate change, disease outbreaks, environmental hazards and disasters, and natural resources, as well as weather forecasting;
- has cooperated with Japan and Russia (2025)
Key space-program milestones
- 2020 - began a program (BIRDS-5) sponsored by Japan to promote the development of a domestic space program by designing, building, testing, launching, and operating the first satellites for participating countries
- 2021 - established satellite ground communications station and completed national wetlands mapping project
- 2022 - first nano-sized remote sensing/educational satellite (ZIMSAT-1) built with Japan’s assistance and launched by Japan under the BIRDs-5 program
- 2024 - second RS satellite (ZIMSAT-2) built with Russian assistance and launched by Russia
Transnational Issues
2 fieldsTrafficking in persons
- tier rating:
- Tier 2 Watch List — the government did not demonstrate overall increasing efforts to eliminate trafficking compared with the previous reporting period, therefore Zimbabwe remained on Tier 2 Watch List for the second consecutive year;
- for more details, go to: https://www.state.gov/reports/2025-trafficking-in-persons-report/zimbabwe/
Cite this entry
Central Intelligence Agency. “Zimbabwe.” The World Factbook 2025. Archived by The Factbook, thefactbook.org/zimbabwe.